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Chinese Architectural History Chinese architecture refers to
a style of architecture that has taken shape in Asia over the
centuries. The structural principles of Chinese architecture
have remained largely unchanged, the main changes being only
the decorative details. Since the Tang Dynasty, Chinese architecture
has had a major influence on the architectural styles of Japan,
Korea, Taiwan, and Vietnam. There
is strong evidence indicating that the Chinese has employed an
indigenous system of construction that has retained its principal
characteristics from prehistoric times. This section gives a snapshot of traditional Chinese architecture before the introduction of Western building methods during the early 20th Century. Throughout the 20th Century Western trained Chinese architects have attempted to combine traditional Chinese designs into modern buildings with only limited success. The pressure for urban development throughout contemporary China requires higher speed of construction and higher floor area ratio which means that in the great cities the demand for traditional Chinese buildings is being replaced by modern architectural methods. However, the traditional skills of Chinese architecture, including major carpentry, minor carpentry, masonry, and stone masonry, are still applied to the construction of vernacular architecture in the vast rural area in China. Features of the Chinese Venacular There are certain features common
to all traditional Chinese architecture, regardless of specific
region or use. Another important feature is its emphasis on articulation and symmetry, which connotes a sense of grandeur. This applies to everything from palaces to farmhouses. A notable exception is in the design of gardens which tends to be as asymmetrical as possible. The principle underlying the garden's composition is to create enduring flow and also to emulate nature. Material features of Chinese buildings include building with either red or gray bricks, although wooden structures are the most common. These are more capable of withstanding earthquakes but are vulnerable to fire. The roof of a typical Chinese building is curved. There are strict classifications of gable types, comparable with the classical orders of European columns. The use of certain colors, numbers and the cardinal directions in traditional Chinese architecture reflected the belief in a type of immanence, where its nature could be wholly contained in its own form, without reference to an evanescent belief. Only a small amount of Chinese architectural literature remain though the earliest text, the Kaogongji, is still the undisputed source of information. Ideas about cosmic harmony and the order of the city were usually interpreted at their most basic level. A concept of the ideal city never existed. Beijing as reconstructed throughout the 15th and 16th century remains the best example of traditional Chinese town planning. China's architecture pays particular attention to the beauty of group combination and often adopts a central-axis, symmetric compact composition method. But some types, such as gardens, certain mountain forest Taoist temples and certain residences adopt the method of free combination. No matter which composition method is adopted, great attention is paid to the pursuit of neutral, easy, reserved and deep esthetic characters, giving expressions to the esthetic habits of the Chinese Imperial Architecture
The Chinese dragon, an emblem reserved for Imperial China, were heavily used on Imperial architecture on the roofs, beams, pillars, and doors. Only the buildings used by the imperial family were allowed to have nine gan, the space between two columns; only the gates used by the Emperor could have five arches, with the centre one, of course, being reserved for the Emperor himself. The ancient Chinese favored the color red. The buildings faced south because the north had a cold wind. Beijing became the capital of China after the Mongol invasion of the 13th century, completing the easterly migration of the Chinese capital begun since the Jin dynasty, the Ming uprising in 1368 reasserted Chinese authority and fixed Beijing as the seat of imperial power for the next five centuries. The Emperor and the Empress lived in palaces on the central axis of the Forbidden City, the Crown Prince at the eastern side, and the concubines at the back, therefore the numerous imperial concubines were often referred to as The Back Palace Three Thousand. However, during the mid-Qing Dynasty, the Emperor's residence was moved to the western side of the complex. It is misleading to speak of an axis in the Western sense of a visual perspective ordering facades, rather the Chinese axis is a line of privilege, usually built upon, regulating access - there are no vistas, but a series of gates and pavilions. Numerology heavily influenced Imperial Architecture, hence the use of nine in much of construction, nine being the greatest number. The Forbidden City in Beijing is said to have 9,999.5 rooms just short of the mythical 10,000 rooms in heaven. The importance of the East, the direction of the rising sun, in orienting and siting Imperial buildings is a form of solar worship found in many ancient cultures where the notion of Ruler is affiliated with the Sun. Commoner Architecture
Sometimes the extended families became so large that one or even two extra pairs of "wings" had to be built. This resulted in a U-shaped building, with a courtyard suitable for farm work; merchants and bureaucrats, however, preferred to close off the front with an imposing front gate. All buildings were legally regulated, and the law held that the number of storeys, the length of the building and the colours used depended on the owner's class. Religious Architecture
Entering the front hall, one
is confronted by four huge images, usually made from wood, two
on each side. These are the Four Heavenly Kings or Devas, the
Guardians of the Four Directions and the hall is named after
them as the 'Si-Tien Wang Tien'. In this hall, one is greeted
at the entrance, by the lovable and kindly Buddha-to-be, Maitreya
Buddha, known to the Chinese as the 'Laughing Buddha' or 'Ta-pao
Mi-Lei-Fwo, with his fat paunch, looking joyously towards the
entrance. Directly behind Mi-Lei-Fwo, often separated by a wall,
is the great deva Wei-to, the Projector of Buddhist temples and
the Faith. He is depicted clad in full armour and holding either
a gnarled staff or a sceptre-shaped weapon resting on the ground.
Wei-To, who is a general under the Four Heavenly Kings, is also
accorded the title of 'Protector of Buddhist Books'. He is always
facing the Great Hall known as the 'Ta-Hung-Pau-Tien' which is
separated from the front hall by a wall or a courtyard. In the Great Hall the main altar
is found and on it is the image of Sakyamuni Buddha and his twoforemost
disciples, Mahakasyapa and Ananda, or other Buddhas of the past
eras. The arrangment and choice of personages in this altar varies
from temple to temple. Most of the time Sakyamuni Buddha is depicted
in an attitude of comtemplation with his disciples flanking him.
Temples dedicated to Amitabha Buddha have his image at the centre,
Sakyamuni Buddha and Bahaisajyagura, better known to the Chinese
as 'Yao-Shih-Fwo', are each accompanied by two disciples. To
the right and left of the main altar one usually finds the two
Great Bodhisattvas, Manjusri (Wen-Shu-Shih-Li) and Samantabhadra
(Pu-Hsien). The placement of personage are not really fixed so
that one may often find Sakyamuni Buddha being flanked by Amitabha
(O-Mi-Two-Fwo) and Yao-Shin-Fwo (Medicine Buddha), the two great
Buddhas of past eras. At other times a single Buddha is seen
seated between his two Bodhisattvas, Sakyamuni (Shih-Jia-Mo-Ni-Fwo)
between Manjusri and Samantabhadra or Amitabha Buddha with Avalokitesvara
(Kuan Yin) and Mahasthamaprata (Ta-Shih-Chih). Temples dedicated
to Kuan Shih Yin P'usa will have her flanked by Wen-shu-Shih-Li
and P'u-Hsien. On the east and west walls of this Great Hall are often arranged the figures of the Eighteen Arhats (Lohas) who are represented as possessing various kinds of supernatural powers. Along the north wall can be found the images of Jan-teng Fwo or Dipankara, the ancient Buddha who predicted Sakyamuni's Buddhahood, and popular Bodhisattvas such as Kun Yin, Wen-shu, Pu-Hsien and Ti-stsang (Ksi-tigarbha), or other Bodhisattvas. Very often, an image of Kuan Ti, the Protector of Buddhism, can also be found in this hall. It is here at the Ta-Hung-Pau-Tien that devout Buddhist offer their prayers and offerings of flowers, fruits and other gifts which are placed on the table in front of the main altar. Very often, behind the central images of this hall and facing northwards, is placed the images of Kuan-Yin P'usa. The third, of Back Hall, is usually divided into several smaller halls (Tien) or rooms. The central hall is generally the altar of a Buddha or a Bodhisattva, the right housing the funerary tablet of the temple founder, while the left may be the Teaching or Meditation Hall. On the side or behind these main buildings are the living quarters, the dining area and the kitchen. Taoist architecture usually follow
the commoners' style though the main entrance is usually at the
side, out of superstition about demons which might try to enter
the premise. In contrast to the Buddhists, in a Taoist temple
the main deity is located at the main hall at the front, the
lesser deities at the back hall and at the sides. Taoist architecture
includes temples, palaces, nunneries, altars and huts where religious
activities are performed and the power that envelopes and flows
through all things, living and non-living, is worshipped. Similar
to Buddhist architecture, it can be divided into holy halls for
sacrifice, altars to pray at, houses to live in, rooms to chant
scriptures in according to their use. Another constructional style follows Taoist theory of five elements and eight diagrams. A furnace - a stove to refine pills of immortality which are believed to lengthen one's life is laid in the center around which other constructions are distributed according to eight diagrams. All structures are in line forming a strict constructional system which reflects Taoist thought of the inter-relationship of Essence, Energy and Spirit. Taoist architecture is developed from the early palaces, altars and temples in ancient China. Most Taoist temples are wooden-framed and have garden structures. Some garden sights are man-made pavilions, towers, walkways and terraces. And others are mainly based on natural scenery. Quiet and beautiful mountains provide an unblemished environment in which Taoists can cultivate their inner selves. Taoist architecture provides us an opportunity to experience genuine Taoist culture. It has important artistic and historic values in lucubrating Taoist philosophy and thought of ancient China. Famous Taoist Holy Mountains in China include Mt. Wudang, Mt. Longhushan, Mt. Qingcheng and Mt. Laoshan. And Famous Taoist Holy Temples are Qingyang Temple, Taoist Temple of the Eight Immortals (Ba Xian An) and Wong Tai Sin Temple. The tallest pre-modern building in China was built for both religious and martial purposes. The Liaodi Pagoda of 1055 AD stands at a height of 84 m (275 ft), and although it served as the crowning pagoda of the Kaiyuan monastery in old Dingzhou, Hebei, it was also used as a military watchtower for Song Dynasty soldiers to observe potential Liao Dynasty enemy movements. Three Stages of China's Architecture History Traditional Chinese architecture is based mainly on Han architecture, comprising roughly 15 types such as city, palace, temple, mausoleum, monastery, Buddhist pagoda, grottoes, garden, government office, folk public building, landscape, tower and pavilion, imperial palace, residential house, great wall and bridge. In the long process of development, China's architecture has consistently kept intact the basic character of the system. The history of architectural development can be divided into several major stages:
It can be seen that each upsurge in architectural development was correspondingly accompanied by the unification of the country, long-term stability, radical cultural exchanges and other social backgrounds. For example, the unification of the Qin and Han dynasties accelerated exchanges between the Central Plain culture and the Chu and Yue cultures. The unification of Sui and Tang dynasties increased the cultural exchanges between China and other Asian countries, as well as between north and south China; the unification of Ming and Qing dynasties strengthened exchanges among various Chinese nationalities and began the exchange of Chinese and Western architectural cultures. It can be said that unification, stability, economic prosperity, enhancement of national strength and cultural exchange are the internal opportunities for the development of architectural art. 
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Over
the vast area from Chinese Turkistan to Japan, from Manchuria
to the northern half of French Indochina, the same system of
construction is prevalent and indicative of a strong Chinese
influence. That this system of construction could perpetuate
itself for more than four thousand years over such a vast territory
and still remain a living architecture, retaining its principal
characteristics in spite of repeated foreign military, intellectual,
and spiritual invasions is a phenomenon comparable only to the
continuity of the Chinese culture itself.
The
most important is the emphasis on the horizontal axis, in particular
the construction of a heavy platform and a large roof that floats
over this base with the vertical walls not as well emphasized.
This is in contrast to Western architecture which tends to grow
in height and depth. Chinese architecture stresses the visual
impact of the width of the buildings. For example, the halls
and palaces in the Forbidden City have rather low ceilings when
compared to equivalent stately buildings in the West but their
external appearances suggest the all embracing nature of imperial
China. This does not apply to pagodas that are relatively rare.
These ideas have found their way into modern Western architecture,
for example through the work of Jørn Utzon.
There were certain architectural features that
were reserved solely for buildings built for the Emperor of China.
One example is the use of yellow roof tiles; yellow having been
the Imperial color, yellow roof tiles still adorn most of the
buildings within the Forbidden City. The Temple of Heaven, however,
uses blue roof tiles to symbolize the sky. The roofs are almost
invariably supported by brackets ("dougong"), a feature
shared only with the largest of religious buildings. The wooden
columns of the buildings, as well as the surface of the walls,
tend to be red in color. Black is also a famous color often used
in pagodas. They believe the gods are inspired by the black color
to descend on to the earth. 
As
for the commoners, be they bureaucrats, merchants or farmers,
their houses tended to follow a set pattern: the centre of the
building would be a shrine for the deities and the ancestors,
which would also be used during festivities. On its two sides
were bedrooms for the elders; the two wings of the building (known
as "guardian dragons" by the Chinese) were for the
junior members of the family, as well as the living room, the
dining room, and the kitchen, although sometimes the living room
could be very close to the center.
Generally speaking, Buddhist architecture follow
the imperial styleand bears very little resemblance to the temples
in India or other Buddhist countries. Generally there are three
groups of buildings separated by courtyards. The monastery, like
other Chinese structures, normally faces south.A large Buddhist
monastery normally has a front hall, housing the statue of a
Bodhisattva, followed by a great hall, housing the statues of
the Buddhas. Accommodations for the monks and the nuns are located
at the two sides. Some of the greatest examples of this come
from the 18th century temples of the Puning Temple and the Putuo
Zongcheng Temple. Buddhist monasteries sometimes also have pagodas,
which may house the relics of the Gautama Buddha; older pagodas
tend to be four-sided, while later pagodas usually have eight-sides.
But
the difference is that Taoist architectural style is closer to
that of worldly buildings and Taoist statues and wall paintings
are more familiar to common people.